For Egyptians the decoration of tomb walls with reliefs or painted scenes provided some certainty of the perpetuation of life; in a temple, similarly, it was believed that mural decoration magically ensured the performance of important ceremonies and reinforced the memory of royal deeds.
The earliest appearance of mural decoration is to be found in tomb 100 at Hierakonpolis, presumably the grave of a powerful local chieftain; it is dated to the early Gerzean (Naqādah II) period. Although technically they are considered small objects, the large ceremonial palettes that appear around the beginning of the dynastic period represent the earliest religious relief sculptures, which would eventually find their place on the walls of temples built in stone, after the appearance of that medium.
The beginnings of the dynastic tradition can be found in tombs of the 3rd dynasty, such as that of Hesire at Ṣaqqārah; it contained mural paintings of funerary equipment and wooden panels carrying figures of Hesire in the finest low relief. Generally speaking, mural decorations were in paint when the ground was mud brick or stone of poor quality and in relief when the walls were in good stone. Painting and drawing formed the basis of what was to be carved in relief, and the finished carving was itself commonly painted.
In tombs the mural decorations might be left unfinished, being only partly sketched or partly carved by the time of the burial. Uncompleted scenes reveal clearly the methods of laying out walls for decoration. The prepared wall was marked out with red guidelines, the grid described earlier being used for major human figures and sometimes for minor ones. Preliminary outlines were corrected in black, and paint was applied usually in tempera, with pigments being mostly mineral-based.
In the Old Kingdom pure painting of the highest quality is found as early as the 4th dynasty, in the scene of geese from the tomb of Nefermaat and Atet at Maydum. But the glory of Old Kingdom mural decoration is the low-relief work in the royal funerary monuments of the 5th dynasty and in the private tombs of the 5th and 6th dynasties in the Memphite necropolis. Outstanding are the reliefs from the sun temple of King Neuserre at Abu Jīrab and the scenes of daily life in the tombs of Ptahhotep and Ti at Ṣaqqārah.
The tradition of fine painting was continued in the Middle Kingdom. At Beni Hasan the funerary chambers are crowded with paintings exhibiting fine draftsmanship and use of colour. The best relief work of the period, reviving the Memphite tradition, is found at Thebes in the tomb of Mentuhotep II at Dayr al-Baḥrī and in the little shrine of Sesostris I at Karnak, where the fine carving is greatly enhanced by a masterly use of space in the disposition of figures and text.
In the early 18th dynasty the relief tradition was revived at Thebes and can best be observed in the carvings in Hatshepsut’s temple at Dayr al-Baḥrī. Later royal reliefs of Amenhotep III and of the post-Amarna kings show a stylistic refinement that was carried to its best in the reign of Seti I at Karnak, at Abydos, and in his tomb at Thebes.
The 18th dynasty also saw Egyptian painting reach its highest achievement in the tombs of the nobles at Thebes. The medium of decoration and an increased range of motifs felt appropriate for tomb decoration led to the introduction of small, often entertaining details into standard scenes. The tiny tombs of Menna and Nakht are full of such playful vignettes. The paintings in great tombs, such as that of Rekhmire, are more formal but still crammed with unusual detail. Fragments of mural and floor paintings from palaces and houses at Thebes and Tell el-Amarnaprovide tantalizing glimpses of the marsh and garden settings of everyday upper-class life.
The fine royal reliefs of the late 18th dynasty were matched by those in private tombs at Thebes (Ramose and Kheruef) and Ṣaqqārah (Horemheb); these are breathtaking in execution and, in the case of Horemheb, both moving and original. Mastery of large-scale relief compositionssubsequently passed to the work in the temples of the 19th and 20th dynasties. The most dramatic subject was war, whether the so-called triumph of Ramses II at Kadesh (Thebes and Abu Simbel), or the more genuine successes of Ramses III against the Libyans and the Sea Peoples (Madīnat Habu). The size and vitality of these ostentatious scenes are stupendous, even if their execution tends to be slapdash.
The artistic renaissance of the 25th and 26th dynasties is evident in painting and relief as well as in sculpture. Although the fine work in the tomb of Montemhat at Thebes is distinctly archaizing, it is, nevertheless, exceptional in quality. The skills of the Egyptian draftsman, nurtured by centuries of exercise at large and small scale, remained highly professional. This skill is seen at its most consistent level in the illumination of papyruses. The practice of including drawings, often painted, in religious papyruses flourished from the time of the 18th dynasty and reached a high point about 1300 BCE. The peak of achievement is probably represented by the Book of the Dead of the scribe Ani, in the vignettes of which both technique and the use of colour are outstanding. Subsequently, and especially in the Late period, pure line drawing was increasingly employed.
Plastic arts
In Egypt pottery provided the basic material for vessels of all kinds. Fine wares and many other small objects were made from faience. Glass arrived late on the scene and was used somewhat irregularly from the New Kingdom onward.
Pottery
Generally speaking, Egyptian pottery had few artistic pretensions. In the tomb of Tutankhamen most of the pottery vessels were simple wine jars in the form of amphorae. It is surprising that no finer pottery vessels were found, because high-quality ware was made during the late 18th and 19th dynasties, often brightly painted with floral designs.
Pottery was rarely modeled, although human and animal figures occur in small numbers throughout the Dynastic period. Small vessels in animal form were also made, especially during the Middle and New kingdoms, and a fine category of highly burnished red pottery vases in female form was produced during the 18th dynasty
Faience
The use of pottery was filled with modeled faience objects (a glazed composition of ground quartz), most commonly blue or green in colour. In the Early Dynastic period it was much used for the making of small animal and human figures, and throughout the Dynastic period it continued to be used in this way, among the most striking results being the blue-glazed hippopotamus figures of Middle Kingdom date.
In the Late period, in particular, the making of amulets and divine figurines in faience was highly developed, and many pieces display a high standard of molding and perfection of glazing. The vast quantities of ushabti (shabti, or shawabty), small statuettes that stood in for the deceased, are mostly routine work, but the finest examples from the New Kingdom, and some of Saite date, show complete mastery of a difficult technique.
Glass
In the form of glaze, glass was known to the ancient Egyptians from early predynastic times, but the material was not used independently until the 18th dynasty. From the mid-18th dynasty and during the 19th dynasty glass was used for small amulets, beads, inlays, and especially for small vessels. The material was opaque, blue being the predominant colour, although other bright colours were also achieved. The vessels, made around sand cores, were mostly drinking cups or flasks for precious liquids and were often decorated with trailed patterns applied as glass threads. Glass was certainly a material of luxury, a fact confirmed by the presence of two glass goblets with gold rims among a treasure of precious vessels from the reign of Thutmose III.
The use of glass for inlay is notably demonstrated in Tutankhamen’s golden throne, in his solid gold mask, and in much of his jewelry. After the 19th dynasty, glass manufacture seems largely to have been discontinued until the Late period, when the use of glass for inlays was revived.
